SCHOOL-BASED GENDER DISCRIMINATION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING AMONG ADOLESCENT GIRLS IN GOVERNMENT SECONDARY SCHOOLS: A MULTILEVEL STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING STUDY

Abstract

Gender discrimination within school environments has been increasingly recognized as a critical factor influencing the psychological wellbeing of adolescent girls, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. However, empirical evidence accounting for both individual- and school-level influences remains limited in the Pakistani context. This study examines the relationship between school-based gender discrimination and psychological wellbeing among adolescent girls enrolled in government secondary schools in Punjab, Pakistan, using a multilevel structural equation modeling (MSEM) approach. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 1,248 adolescent girls nested within 42 government secondary schools selected through multistage cluster sampling. Standardized instruments were used to assess perceived school-based gender discrimination and psychological wellbeing. Data were analyzed in R using the lavaan package to estimate measurement and structural models at both within- and between-school levels. Results indicated that higher levels of perceived gender discrimination were significantly associated with poorer psychological wellbeing at the individual level (β = −0.41, p < 0.001). Significant between-school variance was observed in both gender discrimination and psychological wellbeing, justifying the use of a multilevel approach. At the school level, institutions characterized by higher average discrimination reported substantially lower overall wellbeing among students (β = −0.53, p < 0.01). The final model demonstrated acceptable fit indices (CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.045). These findings underscore the importance of addressing gender-discriminatory practices within school systems and highlight the need for gender-sensitive policies and mental health interventions at both individual and institutional levels to promote adolescent girls’ wellbeing in Pakistan.